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Lindsey Hall: Hi. I'm Lindsey Hall, Head of Thought Leadership at S&P Global Sustainable1. 

Esther Whieldon: And I'm Esther Whieldon, a senior writer on the Sustainable1 Thought Leadership Team.

Lindsey Hall: Welcome to ESG Insider an S&P Global podcast where Esther and I take you inside the environmental, social and governance issues that are shaping the rapidly evolving sustainability landscape.

Esther Whieldon: Happy New Year, Lindsey! 

Lindsey Hall: Esther, happy 2024. Today's episode begins the sixth season of this podcast. And as we mentioned last week, when we reviewed the best of 2023, our podcast has evolved quite a bit since it launched back in 2019.

Esther Whieldon: That's right. And in 2024, we're going to bring our listeners even more insights into the fast-changing sustainability landscape. We're going to do this through interviews, live recording sessions and on-the-ground coverage of key events. One of our goals this year is to focus on concrete examples and solutions. 

Lindsey Hall: And we're going to do that in today's episode where we're talking with 4 authors behind the U.S. government's recently published Fifth National Climate Assessment. If you want to understand the state of climate change in the U.S., you need to know about this report. Now this is a congressionally mandated interagency analysis that comes out every 4 years, and it's the U.S. government's preeminent report on climate change impacts, risks and responses. The government issued this Fifth Assessment in late November 2023. 

And we've been talking a lot on the podcast about how to quantify the financial costs of climate change. This is something we recently published research on here at S&P Global Sustainable1, and we'll include a link to that in our show notes. 

Well, this new report from the U.S. government includes some pretty startling figures about those costs. For example, the U.S. now experiences on average a billion dollar weather or climate disaster every 3 weeks. Extreme events cost the U.S. close to $150 billion each year, the report finds. And that's a conservative estimate that doesn't account for a loss of life, health care-related costs or damage to ecosystem services.

Esther Whieldon: This is a big report with more than 30 chapters and hundreds of authors across government and academia. In today's interviews, will be exploring what the report has to say about how climate change is impacting the U.S. economy, human health, coastal regions, and agricultural production and food supply chains. The report's findings are centered around scientific research and literature — that's similar to the reports by the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Lindsey Hall: To understand how climate change is affecting the US economy, we'll hear today from Monica Grasso. She's Chief Economic Advisor at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). And she was the agency lead author for the economics chapter of the Fifth Climate Assessment.

We explore the link between climate change and health with Mary Hayden. Mary is a Research Professor at the Lyda Hill Institute for Human Resilience at the University of Colorado. And she was the lead author of the report's chapter on human health.

Esther Whieldon: To understand how climate change is affecting agriculture and food supply chains, we hear from Dr. Dannele Peck. She is an agricultural economist and Director of the Northern Plains Climate Hub for the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). Dannele co-authored the chapter on agriculture, food systems and rural communities.

Now for what the report says on the physical impacts of climate change including for coastal communities we'll talk with Mark Osler. Mark is the Senior Advisor for Coastal Inundation and Resilience at NOAA and he was the federal coordinating lead author of the report’s chapter on coastal effects. Mark also provides us with some key topline takeaways of the full report. 

Lindsey Hall: But before we turn to that clip, let's continue another tradition for this podcast, which is translating terms into plain English for our listeners. Let's start with a term that appears in Mark's title, coastal inundation. Esther, what exactly does that term mean?

Esther Whieldon: Yes. I was also curious about that term as I've often heard it mentioned interchangeably with flooding. I ask Mark to describe the difference between inundation and flooding. Here he is.

Mark Osler: Yeah. So inundation and flooding are often used casually, they're used interchangeably. In my world, they are used to suggest a nuance between flooding — is land that's normally dry that has become wet for a period of time because of elevated river levels or a storm surge or heavy rainfall but then again becomes dry. That is a flood. Inundation is the concept of land that has traditionally been dry that is slowly becoming submerged on a permanent basis, which is what we're seeing in coastal wetlands due to sea level rise.

Esther Whieldon: Two other terms we'll hear on this episode are mitigation and adaptation. Generally speaking, mitigation refers to actions that aim to reduce or prevent the flow of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. It can also refer to processes where nature of our technologies absorb emissions from the atmosphere and then store them. Adaptation, on the other hand, involves taking steps to prevent or minimize the adverse impacts of climate change, such as extreme weather events, for example. Okay. Now let's turn back to my interview with Mark, who began by talking about what the climate assessment is and its key findings.

Mark Osler: The climate assessments are an integration of the state of the science with respect to how our environment is changing and how those changes impact our ecology and built environment and civil society. And these assessments are written by order of Congress. So this is the fifth time through. And the hope is that these documents are used as a reference point to understand how climate change is impacting our society, how the science is progressing and increasingly understanding how our society is adapting to those changes on the ground. The climate assessment is not policy prescriptive, meaning that it doesn't tell people what to do with any of this information. It's really meant to be a scientifically based foundation upon which risk-informed policy can be made both at the federal state local levels as well as in private industry, government, et cetera.

Esther Whieldon: Great. Thank you. All right. So let's look at this assessment. What are some of the key takeaways, the top line takeaways our listeners should know about?

Mark Osler: The impacts of climate change are happening now, and they are occurring across the country. global greenhouse gas emissions from human activities continue to increase, which is resulting in warming and in many cases, warming that is accelerating. We see that mostly expressed through the changes in extreme weather events, things like heavy rainfall down bursts, currents, and intensity of drought or flooding or wildfire, changing frequency and intensity of hurricanes and issues like sea level rise impacting our communities more and more. 

These changes matter because they make existing challenges in our society worse. Tarticularly for those that are already struggling to just live life day to day. The changes in extremes and the intensity and the extremes of those weather patterns are really impacting our ability to maintain economic flexibility and help communities get back on their feet after a severe weather events. And so we are centered on the understanding that every degree of warming matters. Each additional increment of warming is expected to lead to more damage and greater economic loss. And therefore, the positive side of that is each avoided increment of warming can reduce risks and the harmful impacts that they result in.

Esther Whieldon: We just heard Mark say that any reductions in emissions we can make now will reduce our future risks. I heard something similar from Monica NOAA's Chief Economic Adviser. She said one of her key takeaways from the report is that the U.S. is taking action in this area already, who she is.

Monica Grasso: So although there is a lot to be done, we found that across the country, efforts are underway to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and also adjusting to the current and future effects of climate change. 

So we saw that since 2007, U.S. emissions have fallen, also wind energy costs dropped 70%, and solar energy costs dropped 90% over the last decade, while 80% of new generation capacity in 2020 came from renewable resources. 

Esther Whieldon: Monica went on to explain 3 ways that climate changes impacting the U.S. economy and international trade. 

Monica Grasso: First of all, climate change affects the economy directly and is expected to improve substantial new costs to the U.S. economy. So as we know, the vast majority of the economic activities across the U.S. can be affected by changes in the climate, I say, such as agriculture, transportation, tourism, health care, real estate and others. 

And while some economic impacts of climate change are already being felt, the impact of future changes are expected to be more significant across the sectors of the economy. And more frequent extreme events and higher temperatures lead to direct economic losses via infrastructure damage, work injuries, crop loss. 

And also in current estimates of nationwide impacts, we have indication that the net loss in the economic well-being of the American society are projected to be distributed unequally affecting certain regions, industries and socioeconomic groups more than others.

The second takeaway is that markets and budgets are already responding to current and anticipated climate changes and that stronger market responses are expected as climate change progresses. So as the risk of climate extremes grows, the new costs and challenges will emerge in insurance systems and public budgets that were not originally designed to respond to climate change. 

For example, sea-level rise, wildfires and hurricanes can decrease housing values and tax revenues, alter the insurance costs and availability, while increasing public expenditures for health care, income support, crop insurance and disaster assistance. 

So the third takeaway from the economics chapter is that climate change will alter the economic landscape for households, businesses and governments. And climate changes are expected to impose new costs to the U.S. economy and potentially slow the economic growth. So more frequent events can disrupt international trade and supply chains. And as climate change advances, economic risks are projected to grow over time. It is also important to highlight the impacts of climate change on the economy are happening today and will continue in the future.

Esther Whieldon: We just heard Monica describe how climate change could alter the economic landscape for households, businesses and governments, and how we felt more in certain regions, industries and socioeconomic groups and others. I asked her to give some examples of what regions and communities will be hit the hardest.

Monica Grasso: We found that the Southeast, for example, is one of the most regions impacted by the increase in global warming, increase potentially looking at increasing energy spending, using of coal, natural gas and other sources of energy. 

We also saw that, for example, communities that are low income and do work outdoors have impact -- are receiving impact -- from climate change. For example, fFks that are exposed to extreme heat, regions that have extreme heat can see loss of labor hours for the industry and increase in health costs as well. We saw that individuals of colors and individuals with low income are expected to be most affected. We look at the potential impact to the workers. Cost of labor expected to lose approximately $19 billion to $46 billion in wages each year by 2050 due to unsafe conditions. 

Esther Whieldon: That figure that Monica just cited really struck me — how safety conditions tied to climate impacts could result in up to $46 billion in workforce lost wages in the U.S. annually by 2050. Now let's turn to my interview with Mark Osler. Here he is describing findings from the chapter on the coastal effects of climate change.

Mark Osler: So there are 3 key takeaways from the coastal effects chapter. The first takeaway is that coastal impacts are growing due to sea-level rise and changing storm patterns. Over the next 30 years, US sea levels are expected to rise on an average of 1 foot, which is the same amount of rise that our country has seen over the prior 100 years. And so in the next 30 years, we're going to see the same amount of changes we have seen over the last century. 

This will result in flooding impacts, even in the absence of storms, areas getting wet at high tide or due to weather patterns that are not stormy but are causing water to come up on land and flood areas that are normally dry. 

Today, we see that particularly on the East and Gulf Coast, mostly on the average of 5x to 10x a year in some cases. And we expect that frequency of those high tide or sunny-day flooding events to be 5x or 10x more likely across the U.S. in the next 30 years. 

The second key takeaway is that this rise in sea level is affecting the ability of coastal ecosystems and communities to thrive. Sea level rise is threatening properties and public safety and degrading the functionality of public infrastructure, they're squeezing coastal ecosystems and limits their ability to adapt and to function properly. And we see these impacts across our transportation infrastructure, impacting supply chains, and impacting continuity of businesses along the coast as well as the impacts of our ports, where over 90% of international trade with the U.S. comes in through our ports. Our ports are, by definition, on our coast. And so it's degrading our ability to do commerce and have safe transport of goods and services. 

The third takeaway is that the opportunities for adaptation. So adaptation are the adjustments that communities, businesses and personal homes can make with respect to understanding this risk and how might I plan or behave differently? That is an adaptation. 

And adaptation measures can include building infrastructure like sea walls. It can include nature-based solutions where we are trying to preserve or expand beaches or marshes or mangrove systems in order to reduce risk of coastal flooding. It can also include planned relocation, either of key critical infrastructure or, in some cases increasingly, discussions of community -- wholesale community relocation, which if it is driven, motivated, planned and executed locally by the folks that will be impacted by those decisions, can play a role in sound long-term adaptation.

Esther Whieldon: There's a lot to unpack there. The first thing that came to mind for me was, can you describe the ways in which ports can be impacted? 

Mark Osler: So as I noted, ports are responsible for over 80% of our commerce in the country, period, and over 90% of international trade. And so our coasts are not just places for people to live and do work or vacation. They are the gateway to our economic prosperity with respect to transmission of goods and services. 

So there are a couple of ways that these changes can impact ports. One is the basic concept that sea level rise is changing the average location of the water level with respect to the infrastructure at the port. And so the port can become more vulnerable to flooding or more frequent flooding, which can have upland impacts on their ability to do business, how often they can stay open, or their offices or storages or warehouses, things that happen on site. 

The other piece of the puzzle is that the communities that live around ports, these are people that live and work at the ports, the folks that are responsible for making the work of the ports happen. They, by definition, live near where they work. And so there can be impacts to the communities outside of the port fence line with respect to people's ability to get to work safely or disruptions on their home life due to flooding and sea level rise impacts that reduce the efficiency of the port operations. 

And then the third piece is that ports necessarily connect to upland transportation. It could be rail. It could be trucking. And these pieces of infrastructure that allow the goods and services that come in through the port allow them to get either upriver or inland to be transferred that infrastructure itself, that transportation infrastructure that the port relies on can be impacted as well. 

Esther Whieldon: So we've heard how climate change poses some significant risks to coastal communities as well as to the economy and key components of supply chains. And I think this leads naturally to a discussion of supply chain risk related to food and agriculture. For this, let's turn to one of the co-authors of the chapter of the report on that topic. Here's Dannele.

Dannele Peck: I'm Dannele Peck. I'm an agricultural economist and Director of the USDA Northern Plains Climate Hub. The hub's mission is to develop science-based region-specific information and technologies with agricultural and natural resource managers to empower climate inform decision-making. 

So I served as co-author on Chapter 11, and that covers 3 topics: agriculture, food systems and rural communities. And for each of those 3 topics, there's a key message about it. And that key message is then supported by a discussion of the scientific literature around it. 

For agriculture, key message one explores how climate change. Sosthink about more frequent, severe extremes, like heat waves, droughts and rainfall. How are those posing risks to agricultural production? For example, changes in precipitation, air temperature and soil moisture, they're affecting growing zones, growing days, seasonality and others that we'll talk about today. And then in turn, these changes are making adaptation and mitigation more and more necessary to increase resilience in this evolving landscape and reduce the magnitude of future impacts. 

Turning to key message two, which is about food systems more broadly, this key message talks about how climate change is projected to reduce the availability and affordability of some of our foods, and the impacts of this being unevenly distributed across society. So examples of uneven impacts might include worsening heat stress among farm workers, disruptions to the ability of people to access food through hunting, fishing and foraging. 

The final key message, three is about our rural communities. These communities manage a lot of our nation's land and resources, and they provide food, bioproducts and ecosystem services that benefit all of us. These rural communities are facing both unique challenges and opportunities due to climate change, and these challenges are compounded by other existing stressors, such as poverty, unemployment and depopulation. 

Esther Whieldon: Now the report included a new section in the agriculture chapter that focused on food supply chains for the first time. Hhre's Dannele talking about why this is a growing concern in the U.S. and what insights the report offered. 

Dannele Peck: So I'd like to emphasize first that climate change is affecting all aspects of our food system, and that includes agricultural production, but it also includes food storage, processing, distribution, retail and consumption. 

These effects across the food supply chain matter because they impact our food security, and that involves the availability, the accessibility or affordability, the usability and the stability of our food. Again, things that affect us all. 

And I think one of the important insights for me, helping write that section about food systems, is that different types of food systems they each have unique strengths and weaknesses, and they can complement each other. 

So for example, when a global or a national shock occurs, like we saw with COVID-19, clearly, local elements of our food system can help insulate our communities against some of those large-scale impacts. So during COVID-19, our local farmers, our mobile meat processors, our food assistance organizations, those local efforts help insulate their communities against some of those big global scale issues related to worker shortages and food processing and transportation sectors. 

Conversely, when a localized shock of curves like a hurricane or a wildfire. In those cases, trade, whether it's interstate trade, national, international trade, can help fill gaps in local food availability. And so each of these local and nonlocal elements of the food system, they have unique strengths and weaknesses. And that includes different impacts on our greenhouse gas emissions and socioeconomic effects of a food system and the ecosystem goods and services that it produces like carbon storage, biodiversity and water quality.

Esther Whieldon: What Dannele said about the unique strengths and weaknesses of local and nonlocal supply chains really stood out to me. I don't know about you, Lindsey. But during the pandemic, I was really grateful to have relationships with some local farms. I had developed a relationship with them over the years while attending farmers' markets. And the markets don't run in the winter, but the farmers created a whole new online ordering and biweekly pickup option at the start of the pandemic. And so I was able to buy meat, produce and dairy from the farmers throughout the winter when those grocery store shelves were often empty.

Lindsey Hall: I really wish I had that kind of relationship with local farmers, Esther. I absolutely do not though. I'm the kind of person who is just frantically doing my online grocery shop each week. So I can totally see the value of that, especially in the pandemic. 

Esther Whieldon: Now Dannele actually gave some additional examples of how climate change is affecting agricultural production as well as risks. Here she is.

Dannele Peck: When we look at the crop insurance market in the U.S., what we find is that warming temperatures between 1991 and 2017 have increased crop insurance losses by 19%. Those crop insurance losses are showing us that climate change is increasing the amount of loss being experienced out there in the field. 

There's another broader measure of climate change impact on agriculture and this one is known as total factor productivity. It's a measure of how productively we're using inputs to make outputs in agriculture. 

In the United States, we've seen steady growth in this agricultural TFP, stretching all the way back to 1948. However, climate change has dampened the size of that TFP growth in the United States by about 12% over a 54-year period, and our productivity in agriculture is still growing but not as fast anymore because of climate change. And this agricultural TFP is projected to decline back to pre-1980s levels by 2050, unless we can double the positive impacts of innovation and adaptation in U.S. agriculture compared to historical rates. 

So I want to bring it back to the human impacts of climate change in agriculture. Heat-related stress and death, for example, are significantly greater for farm workers than for all other U.S. civilian workers. And unfortunately, the number of unsafe working days is projected to double by mid-century. Our farmers also disproportionately experienced food insecurity, which can be worsened by extreme events that are fueled by climate change. For example, a drought reduces demand for farm labor thus lowering workers' income and their ability to buy food. So again, impacts are being felt disproportionately by some people. 

Esther Whieldon: We just heard Dannele refer to how climate change is impacting human health, which leads us to the third topic of the report we're going to dive into today. Let's hear from Mary Hayden, the lead author for the human health chapter of the report. Mary starts off by describing the key findings of that chapter. 

Mary Hayden: Well, we start our chapter out by talking about our most important finding that climate change is harming human health. And we like to highlight that it's an established fact that climate change is harming not only physical health but also people's mental health, their spiritual health and their community health and well-being. And this is happening because we're seeing increasing frequency and intensity of extreme events such as hurricanes, droughts, wildfires. 

We're also seeing increasing cases of infectious and vector-borne diseases. And here, for example, I'm talking about Lyme disease, declines in food and water quality and security. So these climate-related hazards, we expect will continue to grow and that we expect to see increasing morbidity and mortality across all regions of the U.S. 

So our second message is that systemic racism and discrimination exacerbate climate impacts on human health. And so as I mentioned before, we know that climate change unequivocally worsens people's physical, mental, spiritual and community health and well-being, but it also exacerbates social inequities. 

And it's an established fact that climate-related impacts disproportionately harm communities and people has been marginalized. And these include BIPOC— or black, indigenous and people of color — individuals and communities with low wealth, women, people with disabilities or chronic diseases, sexual and gender minorities, and children. 

Our third message is that it's one of a little bit more hope. So the other 2 were a little bit more dim and Glen, but this one is really talking about the fact that timely, effective and culturally appropriate adaptation and mitigation actions protect human health. So we know that in every sector of society implementing these timely effective and culturally appropriate adaptation measures, creating climate resilient health systems, and preventing the release of greenhouse gases can protect human health and improve health equity. 

So we're talking about proactive and continuous risk management that will protect at-risk groups and health care facilities. And this is critical to human health and well-being. So this includes definitely different types of approaches that mainstream health into food systems, infrastructure, water and sanitation policies. 

And we also talk about mitigation options with significant health benefits. And these include reducing point source — and by that, I mean coal-fired power plants — by reducing mobile source emissions by increasing active transport  — and here, I'm referring to walking or biking that type of thing — and increasing consumption of vegetables, lagoons, fruits and nuts, n  to mention the fact that the economic value of avoided hospitalizations and premature deaths from mitigation activities is actually larger than the cost of implementation. 

Esther Whieldon: Earlier, we heard Mary mention how climate change is driving an increase in infectious and vector-borne diseases, including from Lyme disease, that disease is a bacterial infection that spread the humans from the bite of a deer tick. I ask Mary to connect the dots for us between climate change and the increased risk of these kinds of diseases. 

Mary Hayden: Climate change is one factor. And typically, we talk about weather extremes as well when we're talking about this because it's a longer spectrum, a time spectrum. So it's weather and climate. And what happens is with most infectious diseases, the vectors of these, or the ticks or even with mosquitoes are very temperature dependent. Their ability to reproduce is dependent upon not only temperature but water availability in the case of mosquitoes. And so as we see these shifts in climatic regimes across the U.S., we're seeing different types of vectors like ticks and mosquitoes, moving into different regions of the U.S. where we haven't seen them before.

Esther Whieldon: Can you talk about how climate change is affecting mental health?

Mary Hayden: Yes, we have a whole section for the first time in our chapter on children's mental health. We have a number of different figures that depict this a little more clearly. But one of the things we know is that children who are affected by adverse childhood events, and this could be wildfires, it could be droughts, it could be hurricanes. It could be any number of disasters that we find that children who have 4 or more of these adverse childhood events are, for example, 30 times more likely to consider suicide. And so we know that there's a lot of eco anxiety out there. 

And I think that's why in our chapter, we don't like to focus just on the dire threats. We really want to talk a little bit more about some of the actions that can be taken because I think it's so important that we think positively. And we know that actions that we take now to help accelerate net emissions reductions can reduce risks for current and future generations.

Esther Whieldon: Let's talk a little bit more about how climate change affects communities in different ways, right, especially you talked about certain social inequities are exacerbated. Can you talk about why that's the case?

Mary Hayden: Yes. So one of the examples that we highlight in our chapter is that heat, for example, does not impact all communities equally. We know that access to cooling centers, which is one strategy to reduce morbidity and mortality, it's more limited in some areas. 

We know, for example, that certain populations are more vulnerable to extreme heat and have less access to health care. And we're talking about younger people, but also people with disabilities, we're talking about older people. 

And the other thing we don't talk about that often, but socially isolated individuals also have less access to cooling centers, but they also have less access to social capital or having somebody check in on them to make sure they're doing okay. 

Energy costs and the cost of repairs, limit people's ability to afford air conditioning. We know from studies we've done that at certain times, 20% of people in this country are not able to cool themselves adequately. There could be a number of reasons for that. One, they might not have air conditioning. They might not be able to afford it. But even if they have air conditioning, they may not be able to afford the cost of reparing it if it breaks down or they might not even be able to afford the cost of electricity to run that air conditioner. 

And coupled with that is we know that low wealth residents often live in homes that provide less protection against extreme heat. So the weatherization isn't enough to reduce their risk. 

And another factor when we talk about disasters and the role that, that plays. So people who are in disadvantaged populations are much more at risk for heat-related illnesses, for example, during power outages. And we see these often when we have hurricanes striking. Particularly along the Gulf Coast area, we've seen this over and over again, extended time, power outages and people without access to air conditioning. 

And the same is true with women that they disproportionately experienced the burden of climate change, right, because of unique mental, but also sexual and reproductive health needs. Pregnancy cisgender women are particularly vulnerable because exposure to heat and particulate matter. And these disasters associated stressors often leads to poor pregnancy outcomes. And by that, I mean miscarriages and low birth weight. 

Esther Whieldon: So we've heard a lot today about how climate change is affecting the U.S. economy, human health and food and agriculture. One theme throughout today's episode was how climate change is disproportionately affecting certain communities, workers and socioeconomic groups. But we also heard how all this talk about the risks, climate change poses to our future is causing some real mental health issues with today's youth. So, with that in mind, I'd like to end this episode with a positive note, which comes from NOAA's Mark Osler.

Mark Osler: My outlook on our ability as a nation and as a global society to rise to the challenge that climate change is presenting to us, is one of optimism. But I'll temper that by saying it's one of conditional optimism, meaning that there is an understanding of the science and societal financial and policy challenges that sit before us. And yet, we are collectively in our realms in the business of understanding those challenges and applying our best efforts to make advances on them. And so that conditional optimism is centered on a belief that we can build on our nation's track record of environmental success, that we have practical ways to reduce harm to our environment. 

We have the means to learn more and to get better at mitigation and adaptation both. The fact that we don't have all the answers today is an inspiring urgent call to be busy in this space. But it's not a reason for despair. These problems are solvable. It does not mean they'll solve themselves, but it does mean that we can solve them if we sustain the focus, which has served us so well throughout our recent history. 

Esther Whieldon: What Mark said, Lindsey, about how the problems are solvable, I think is an important point. We know a lot of work needs to be done, but we are seeing solutions emerging and action occurring across the private and public sectors. 

Lindsey Hall: Please stay tuned as we continue exploring the evolving sustainability landscape, including solutions to climate change.

Lindsey Hall: Thanks so much for listening to this episode of ESG Insider. If you like what you heard today, please subscribe, share and leave us a review wherever you get your podcasts. 

Esther Whieldon: And a special thanks to our agency partner, The 199. See you next time.

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